Some Early American Conspiracies

Some Early American Conspiracies
Thomas Allen

[Editor’s note: Footnotes in original are omitted.]

In the first three decades following the American Revolution and the abandonment of the Articles of Confederation, several important conspiracies occurred. Among them were the Illuminati Conspiracy, the Genet Conspiracy, the Burr Conspiracy, and the Essex Conspiracy.

Illuminati Conspiracy
Before the Bavarian Order of the Illuminati had disbanded in Europe, it had established 15 lodges in the United States. Among these lodges was the Columbian Lodge of the Order of the Illuminati established in 1785 in New York City. Its members included Governor DeWitt Clinton, Charles Dana, Horace Greeley (a spiritualist), and Clinton Roosevelt (an ancestor of Franklin Roosevelt).[1]

Several American leaders during the era of the founding of the United States were Illuminati or at least closely allied with the Illuminati. Among the founding fathers who can be counted as an Illuminatus is Thomas Jefferson. (He belittled those who saw danger in the Illuminati and praised Weishaupt when the Illuminati swept the country in 1797.) He was so high in the organization that he had the insignia of the Illuminati inscribed on the back of the Great Seal of America.[2] Another prominent Illuminatus was Thomas Paine.[3]

The Genet Conspiracy
After the American Revolutionary War had concluded, the French government, which the Illuminists controlled, sent Edmond Genet as its first ambassador to the new republic of the United States. Genet arrived in Charleston in 1793. Upon his arrival, he began acting like a monarch, and his fellow Freemasons treated him as such. He came seeking repayment of America’s debts to France. (France needed money for war with England and revolution). He pursued allowing French privateers to use American crews. As Genet’s insolence grew, Jefferson, who was Secretary of State, was pressured to rescind Genet’s credentials. Jefferson, who was an ardent supporter of the French Revolution and a Rosicrucian and Freemason himself, refused. Rather than act against a fellow Freemason, he resigned. Washington then appointed Edmund Randolph as Secretary of State.

Genet and his American supporters organized Democratic Clubs throughout the United States. These clubs supported the French revolutionists and opposed the Federalists, even to the point of using mobs to threaten supporters of Alexander Hamilton. They were modeled after the Jacobin clubs that had been advocating revolution in France.[4] The objective of the Democratic Clubs was to subvert orderly traditions of the United States. Washington believed that these clubs were behind the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. After Washington openly denounced them, most seemed to have disbanded.[5]

Genet began organizing an army to invade Florida and Louisiana. (According to Mullins, the objective was to take these territories from Spain and set up an independent country from which to invade and reconquer the United States for England.) When President Washington learned of this scheme, he ordered his Secretary of State, Randolph, to seize Genet’s credentials and send him back to France. However, Randolph delayed taking any action. Meanwhile, the French government sent a new ambassador, Joseph Fouchet, and recalled Genet. (Genet belonged to the Girondist faction, which Marat had defeated.)[6] As Genet’s return to France would have meant his death, Washington allowed him to remain in the United States.

In 1795, Washington obtained documents on Randolph’s financial dealings with Fouchet. These documents evidenced bribery and treason. Washington demanded Randolph’s resignation.[7]

The Burr Conspiracy
In the United States, British intelligence worked closely with John Jacob Astor, a Freemason, and Aaron Burr. Astor was the treasurer of the Grand Lodge of New York between 1798 and 1800. In 1800, the East India Co. gave Astor free entry to all the ports that it controlled throughout the world. Thus, he gained an enormous financial advantage over his competition. Astor began making his fortune trading furs. Later as an agent for British intelligence before and after the American Revolution, he received part of the British opium trade with China. His brother, Henry Astor, who had become rich during the American Revolutionary War by selling to the colonists cattle that the British had taken from the colonists, provided the initial funds for his business. Later, John Astor would make a fortune selling opium to the Chinese. To repay this favorable treatment by the East India Co., he funded Aaron Burr’s plot to replace President Jefferson.[8]

During the Revolutionary War, Burr had worked as a double agent for the British. Later he became the attorney for Astor’s commercial activities.

In 1790, Governor George Clinton appointed Burr Attorney General of New York. That same year, the legislature made him Land Commissioner when it enacted into law the sell of state-owned land at a low price to encourage settlers. As Attorney General and Land Commissioner, Burr allowed land speculators with whom he was associated to buy millions of acres at an extremely low price and on long-term credit.[9]

Through his Masonic connections, he fixed elections in New York. In 1798, he gained control of the Society of St. Tammany in New York City, which had been incorporated in 1789. (This society became the infamous Tammany Hall, which corrupted and controlled the politics of New York City from the time Burr gained control until the 1930s.)

Hamilton and Burr founded the Manhattan Company in 1799. This company was chartered to provide water for New York City. However, Burr turned the company into a bank, the Bank of Manhattan Co.

In 1801, Burr became President Jefferson’s Vice President. He persuaded Jefferson to appoint Albert Gallatin as Secretary of the Treasury. Gallatin was a Swiss banker and cousin of Jacque Necker, whose financial policies help cause the French Revolution. Like Burr, Gallatin was an agent of British intelligence during the American Revolutionary War and continued to serve as a British intelligence agent during the Jefferson administration. Gallatin was a friend of Voltaire, who was his father-figure.[10]

In 1804, in a duel with Alexander Hamilton, Burr shot and killed Hamilton. Hamilton had caused Burr to lose his election for governor of New York and had supported Jefferson over Burr for President. If Burr were ever to succeed in dividing the United States for the British, he had to eliminate Hamilton.

After killing Hamilton, Burr fled New York with money from John Astor. (For several more years, Astor continued to give money to Burr.) He went to Philadelphia where he met with Colonel Charles Williamson of British intelligence, who was Burr’s client and confidant. Burr offered his services to the British in setting up a country made from the territory west of the Appalachians.[11]

Williamson had returned the United States following the American Revolutionary War as an agent of a consortium of London financiers who had bought large tracts of land in New York. To acquire the land for his principals in England, he had become a naturalized citizen of the United States. Williamson was also an agent of Henry Dundas (Viscount Melville) and William Pitt (Prime Minister). Dundas, a close associate of Shelburne, was the political boss of Scotland. While serving as the British Secretary of State, Dundas wrote in 1787 a master plan to extend the opium traffic into China, which the East India Co. had been pushing since the American Revolutionary War. He also authorized and instructed British warships to seize American vessels suspected of trading with French colonies and to impress their crews into the British navy, which eventually led to the War of 1812. (Later he became Minister of War [1794-1801] and Lord of the Admiralty [1804-1805].)

Through Williamson, Burr became an agent of Dundas.[12] With covert aid from the British, Burr established his new country. This scheme became known as the “Western Conspiracy.”

James Workman, a British intelligence officer, drew up a plan in 1800 for Dundas to bring the Western Hemisphere under British control. This plan was the basis of Burr’s Western Conspiracy. The plan called for the conquest of the Spanish colonies starting with Louisiana, which was then a Spanish colony, using Irishmen, and then resettling the Irish in these territories.[13]

Workman and Edward Livingston aided Burr in his conspiracy to take the western territories from the United States. (John Jacob Astor had financed Livingston’s move to Louisiana, where Livingston became Grand Master of the Louisiana Masonic Lodge.) These two became the leaders of the Mexican Association. The purpose of this Association was to raise an army. Then with the aid of the British, this army would seize the Louisiana Territory, which the United States had recently obtained from France.[14]

The conspiracy began to unravel as people began to expose it. Burr was later tried for treason and was acquitted. Edmund Randolph, former Grand Master of Virginia, was his attorney. Chief Justice John Marshall, then Grand Master of Virginia, presided over the case. In spite of the overwhelming evidence of his guilt, Marshall got him acquitted.[15] After the trial, Burr fled to Canada and then to England with money that John Jacob Astor had given him. In the end, all the main conspirators escaped conviction. Shortly before the War of 1812 began, Burr returned to the United States. Through the influence of Albert Gallatin and Dolly Madison, President James Madison’s wife, the charges against him were forgotten.[16]

Edward Livingston, one of Burr’s coconspirators later became President Andrew Jackson’s Secretary of State. Just before his appointment, Livingston became Grand High Priest of the Masons of the United States.

Essex Conspiracy
After the collapse of the Western Conspiracy, the Essex Junto, which began in 1798, grew in intensity. A group of conspirators in and around Essex County, Massachusetts, worked with agents of British intelligence to cause the secession of the New England States. Massachusetts Senator George Cabot led this conspiracy.[17] Others involved in this conspiracy were Stephen Higginson (a merchant and brother-in-law of judge John Lowell), judge John Lowell, John Lowell (son of judge John Lowell), Theophilus Parsons (Massachusetts supreme court justice), Timothy Pickering (Massachusetts senator and previously Postmaster General, Secretary of War, and Secretary of State), and judge Tapping Reeve (Aaron Burr’s brother-in-law). Senator James Hillhouse of Connecticut, Senator William Plumer of New Hampshire, Senator Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and Roger Griswold were also involved in the conspiracy.[18] Working for the British to foment this conspiracy were Henry Dundas (chief of British special operations) in Great Britain and Charles Williamson in the United States and Williamson’s two agents, Aaron Burr and General Francisco de Miranda.[19] However, the most important British agent involved in starting this conspiracy was Sir John Robinson, who was one of the highest ranking agents in British intelligence. He came to the United States between 1796 and 1797 and laid the foundation of what became the Essex Junto.[20]

The conspiracy suffered a setback in 1808 when John Quincy Adams exposed it to President Jefferson. However, the events leading to the War of 1812 and the war itself revived it. Throughout the war, these conspirators thwarted the United States government’s war effort. While raising money for the British in Canada, they threatened people who purchased bonds of the United States government. They were also involved in smuggling war materiel into Canada.

The Essex Junto conspiracy culminated in 1814 in the Hartford Convention, which sought secession of the New England states. Their endeavors eventually resulted in the Southern States declaring their independence.

Endnotes
1. William Guy Carr, The Conspiracy to Destroy All Existing Governments and Religions, p. 10. Salem Kirban, Satan’s Angels Exposed (Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania: Salem Kirban Inc., 1980), p. 151. Eustace Mullins, The Curse of Canaan: A Demonology of History (Staunton, Virginia: Revelation Book, 1987), p. 132. William T. Still, New World Order: The Ancient Plan of Secret Societies (Lafayette, Louisiana: Huntington House Publishers, 1990), pp. 92-93.

2. Carr, p. 10. Nesta H. Webster, World Revolution: The Plot Against Civilization (Editor Anthony Gittens; seventh edition; Palmdale, California: Omni Publications, 1994), p. 87.

3. James W. Wardner, Unholy Alliances: The Secret Plan and the Secret People Who Are Working to Destroy America (James W. Wardner, 1996), p. 47.

4. Jim Marrs, Rule by Secrecy: The Hidden History That Connects the Trilateral Commission, the Freemasons, and the Great Pyramids (New York, New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2000), p. 220.

5. William P. Hoar, Architect of Conspiracy: An Intriguing History (Belmont, Massachusetts: Western Islands, 1984), pp. 9-11.

6. Hoar, p. 9. Mullins, p. 185.

7. Mullins, pp. 185-186.

8. Anton Chaitkin, Treason in America From Aaron Burr to Averell Harriman (New York, New York: New Benjamin Franklin House, 1984), pp. 26, 66. Mullins, p. 137.

9. Chaitkin, p. 27.

10. Ibid., p. 21.

11. Chaitkin, pp. 69ff. Mullins, p. 138.

12. Chaitkin pp. 27-31.

13. Ibid., pp. 56-63.

14. Ibid., pp. 72-73.

15. Chaitkin, p. 75. Mullins, p. 139.

16. Chaitkin, p. 80.

17. Mullins, p. 136.

18. Chaitkin, pp. 67, 92, 116.

19. Ibid., pp. 66-67.

20. Ibid, p. 95.

[Editor’s note: The list of references in the original is omitted.]

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Copyright © 2010 by Thomas Coley Allen.

English Revolution

English Revolution
Thomas Allen

[Editor’s note: Footnotes in the original have been omitted.]

In England, Calvinism lead to Oliver Cromwell’s overthrow of the House of Stuart in 1648 and its replacement with the House of Orange-Nassau in 1688. (After Cromwell’s death, the House of Stuart was restored to the throne in 1660 only to be deposed again in 1688.)

After Cromwell executed King Charles I in 1649, he and his “Rump Parliament” assumed absolute power. Then in 1655, he opened England to the Jews. Thus, he repaid the Jews for financing his rebellion; Moses Carvajal was his primary financial backer. (The Jews had financed Cromwell primarily through the Bank of Amsterdam.) Carvajal was also an important source of intelligence for Cromwell. Cromwell, who may have been a Socinian, also allowed the Freemasonry to organize formally in England.

In spite of not being a Freemason, Cromwell is accredited with much of the development of Freemasonry in England. (Cromwell also organized a powerful Freemasonry movement in Italy, whose members were mostly Protestants or Jews.[1]) He gave the members the title of Freemasons. The allegory of the Temple of Solomon, which symbolizes the original condition of man in a state of equality with a Deistic religion, was his creation. Freemasons would rebuild it after the annihilation of Christ and his Church.[2] In this respect, the goals of Freemasonry and Jewry were, and still are, identical.

A political faction that aided Cromwell was the Levellers although he did not seem to share many of their political ideals. They had a political program and a religious program. John Lilburne was one of their political leaders. Politically, the Levellers were advocates of popular sovereignty and wanted the franchise extended. They wanted to change the structure of Parliament and to separate the legislative authority from the executive authority.

In the religious realm, Gerard Winstanley and Everard were the principal leaders. The Levellers believed that the dawn of the Messianic era had arrived. They were early Zionists and strong supporters of Jews—some, such as Everard, even claimed that they were Jews. They claimed to be Christians. However, their Christianity was like that of the Bavarian Illuminati and of the Christian Socialists: Jesus was the author of their egalitarian communistic philosophy.

Upon the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1688, his son, Richard Cromwell became Lord Protector. Two years later Charles II (a Freemason), son of Charles I, became king. James II (a Freemason) followed his father, Charles II, as king. With the aid of many English noblemen and Jewish financiers, William of Orange forced James to abdicate in 1688. William, who had married James’ daughter, Mary, then became king—William III.

The English Revolution occurred with the abdication of James and the crowning of William and the policies that he instituted. The English Revolution has been called the Glorious Revolution and the Bloodless Revolution. Among the important acts of William III as king were the enactment of the Declaration of Rights (1689)and the chartering the Bank of England (1694). The Declaration of Rights ended the king’s power to suspend Parliament or to dispense with its laws. Chartering the Bank of England granted the sole power to issue notes that circulated as money to a central institution. The charter also prohibited private goldsmiths from issuing receipts and required them to store their gold in the vaults of the Bank of England. Thus, the Bank of England became a monopoly to issue money. With its charter began the policy of a permanent national debt.

Loans that Jewish bankers made to the British government brought the Bank of England into being. Although most of the Bank of England’s initial shareholders were English noblemen, by 1721 Jewish financiers and bankers had acquired a significant number of shares and since 1751 shares seldom traded. (In 1946, the Bank of England was nationalized.)

Endnotes
1. Lady Queenborough, (Edith Starr Miller). Occult Theocracy (Two Volumes. Hawthorne, California: The Christian Book Club of America, 1933), pp. 158-159.

2. Denis Fahey, Grand Orient: Freemasonry Unmasked as the Secret Power behind Communism through Discovery of Lost Lectures Delivered by Monsignor George F. Dillon, D.D. at Edinburgh, in October 1884 (New and Revised Edition. Metairie, Louisiana: Sons of Liberty, 1950), p. 13.

ReferencesBirch, Una. Secret Societies and the French Revolution Together with Some Kindred Studies. New York, New York.: John Lane Co., 1911.

Cuddy, Dennis L. Now Is the Dawning of the New Age New World Order. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: Hearthstone Publishing, 2000.

Fahey, Denis. Grand Orient: Freemasonry Unmasked as the Secret Power behind Communism through Discovery of Lost Lectures Delivered by Monsignor George F. Dillon, D.D. at Edinburgh, in October 1884. New and Revised Edition. Metairie, Louisiana: Sons of Liberty, 1950.

McGuire, Paul. Who Will Rule the Future: A Resistance to the New World Order. Lafayette, Louisiana: Huntington House Publishers, 1991.

Mohr, Gordon. The Hidden Power Behind Freemasonry. Second edition. Burnsville, Minnesota: Weisman Publication, 1993.

Mullins, Eustace. The Curse of Canaan: A Demonology of History. Staunton, Virginia: Revelation Book, 1987.

Mullins, Eustace. Secrets of the Federal Reserve. 1991.

Mullins, Eustace. The World Order: Our Secret Rulers. Second edition. Staunton, Virginia: Ezra Pound Institute of Civilization, 1992.

Queenborough, Lady (Edith Starr Miller). Occult Theocracy. Two Volumes. Hawthorne, California: The Christian Book Club of America, 1933.

Skousen, W. Cleon. The Naked Capitalist: A Review and Commentary on Dr. Carroll Quigley’s Book Tragedy and Hope. Salt Lake City, Utah, 1971.

Webster, Nesta H. Secret Societies and Subversive Movements. Palmdale, California: Omni Publication, 1924.

Copyright © 2009 by Thomas Coley Allen.

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The Assassins and Roshaniya

The Assassins and Roshaniya
Thomas Allen

[Editor’s note: Footnotes in the original are omitted.]

During the seventh century, a great disturbance came out of Arabia and swept across North Africa into Spain and across the Middle East to Afghanistan and into the Balkans eventually to Austria and Hungary. It was Islam. Mohammed founded Islam, which he built on three basic dogmas: monotheism, belief in the Prophet (Mohammed), and the law of retribution.

Assassins
Out of Islam came the Assassins. The Assassins formed a secret society that appeared in the eleventh century in Persia. The Assassins were drug users; they used hashish. They grew out of Ismailism.

In the middle of the seventh century following Mohammed’s death, the Moslem world split between the Sunni and the Shia (Shiite) sects.

The Sunni were the orthodox Moslems. They believed that Mohammed was the giver of divine revelation.

The Shia believed in absolute obedience to the imams, or priest-kings, who were the direct descendants of Mohammed through his daughter. They regarded Ali, the fourth imam, more highly than Mohammed.

In the eighth century the Shia sect split into the Twelvers (the majority) and the Seveners or Ismailis. The Twelvers believed that the millennium would come with the twelfth imam of the Mohammedan line. The Seveners believed that the millennium would come with the seventh imam of the Mohammedan line.

The Sunni far out numbered the Shia. To survive, the Shia resorted to secret societies. With secret societies, the Shia sought to gain control of the Moslem world and, eventually, the whole world.

One of their most successful secret societies of the Shia was the House of Wisdom (Abode of Learning, House of Knowledge) in Cairo. In 1004, the sixth Caliph, Hakim, established the House of Wisdom, which was a repository of ancient illuministic knowledge. It trained Moslems to become fanatics. This society operated under the direction of the Caliph of the Fatimites. The instructors in this society were high-ranking officials and included the supreme judge, the commander-in-chief of the army, and the minister of the court. The House of Wisdom had nine degrees of initiation. The Fatimites endeavored to substituted a natural religion for a revealed religion. To do this, they instilled doubt in the minds of their followers. Nothing was to be believed, and everything was lawful. The House of Wisdom provided the foundation for the Assassins.

Hasan-i Sabbah, founder of the Assassins, was reared in a Twelver Shia family in Khorasan of western Persia. As a young man he converted to Ismailism. After the Sultan of Persia exiled him for accounting irregularities, Hasan went to Cairo in 1078 and asked the Caliph’s permission to carry Ismailism to Persia. Permission was granted. Hasan went to Persia and the Assassins or Nizaris were born in 1090. (Abu Mansur Sadakah ibn Yussuf, a Jew and vizier of the Caliph of Egypt, was Hasan’s protector during his missionary work in Persia.[1])

Hasan began using political power to gain spiritual power. To achieve this power, he changed the role of the Ismaili initiate to the role of assassin. He eventually made himself the absolute ruler of the territory around Alamut on the Caspian Sea.

He established a loyal obedient following of assassins through the awesomeness of his authority and the use of drugs. These followers unhesitantly obeyed his commands even unto death. The lower ranks of the uninitiated were required to follow strict Islamic beliefs. The higher-ranking adepts believed in nothing but power. They disregarded all acts or means with indifference. (A basic tenet of the higher initiates of the Assassins was “nothing is true and all is allowed”—the end justifies the means.) Only the ultimate goal of world donation was considered. Concealing their lust for power in religious piety, a few men sought to achieve world donation. The method by which this was to be established was the wholesale assassination of those who opposed them.

The murderous practices of the Assassins lead to a divided disorganized Moslem world, which aided the Christian Crusaders when they arrived in the Holy Land.

By the twelfth century, the Assassins had fractured. The Persian Assassins had adopted the Sunni version of Moslem law. The Syrian branch had become assassins for hire.

When the Mongols conquered Persia and Syria in the thirteenth century, they destroyed the Assassins. The Mongols utterly slaughtered the Persian Assassins. Sultan Baybars turned all the Syrian Assassins into his hired killers.

The Assassins provided a model for the Templars, Bavarian Illuminati, Carbonari, and Irish Republican Brotherhood.

Roshaniya
In the sixteenth century a powerful secret society called the Roshaniya, or Illuminated Ones, arose in Afghanistan. Its roots go at least as far back as the House of Wisdom at Cairo. Bayezid Ansari founded this society after he had converted to an Ismaili cult that claimed to hold a secret doctrine handed down in the family of Mohammed.

Ansari established a school near Peshawar where he instructed initiates in the knowledge of the supernatural. During the course of instruction, the initiate “was to receive the illumination which was emanated from the supreme being, who desired a class of perfect men—and women—to carry out the organization and direction of the world.”[2]

The Roshaniya planned to reform and reorganize the social system of the world by taking control of individual countries one by one. Among its basic tenets was the abolition of private prosperity, religion, and nation states.

Members of the Roshaniya did not worship any particular deity. They “believe that there was a supreme overall power, which was known by the sum of its individual powers (lordship, protection, and so on) and when one had meditated upon them all, and they had become the ‘property’ of the invocant, he would thence forward be a man of complete power.”[3] Once an Illuminists reached this state (the Enlightened One of the fourth degree in the Roshaniya), he was no longer limited by any theological or social bonds. He was free to do as he pleased. Once an adept reached the fourth degree, he could communicate directly with the unknown superiors who had revealed secret knowledge to their followers throughout the ages.

Later Ansari moved his headquarters to the Hindu Kush of Afghanistan. From here he directed his empire to conquer the East. Many merchants and soldiers joined his society. As his society grew more powerful, Ansari began to preach a hedonistic doctrine: eat, drink, and be merry; look after yourself; gain all the power you can; your only allegiance is to the Roshaniya; anyone not a member of the Roshaniya is lawful prey.

Ansari created much havoc in the Mogul Empire. Eventually, Mohsin Khan, Governor of Kabul, arrested and imprisoned him. On the advice of Sheikh Attari, the Governor’s religious guide, Ansari was allowed to escape. (Attari was suspected of being a secret adherent of the Roshaniya.)

After his escape, his power and popularity grew. He set about to take India and Persia by force. He later died of a wound that he received in India in an encounter with Mohsin Khan’s army. His son and grandson in turn became leaders of the society, and each in turn died in battle against the Moguls.

The basic structure and tenets of the Roshaniya appeared in Europe in various Illuminati orders of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, such as the Alombrados or Illuminated Ones of Spain, the Illuminated Guerinets of France, and the Order of the Illuminati of Bavaria.

Endnotes
1. Lady Queenborough (Edith Starr Miller), Occult Theocracy. (Two vols. Hawthorne, California: The Christian Book Club of America, 1933), p. 140.

2. Arkon Daraul, A History of Secret Societies (New York, New York: The Citadel Press, 1961), p. 221.

3. Ibid., p. 222.

References
Daraul, Arkon. A History of Secret Societies. New York, New York: The Citadel Press, 1961.

Frost, Thomas. The Secret Societies of the European Revolutions, 1776–1876. Two volumes. London, England: Tinsley Brothers, 1876.

Larson, Bob. Larson’s Book of Cults. Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. 1982.

MacKenzie, Norman, ed. Secret Societies. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967.

Marrs, Jim. Rule by Secrecy: The Hidden History That Connects the Trilateral Commission, the Freemasons, and the Great Pyramids. New York, New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2000.

Queenborough, Lady (Edith Starr Miller). Occult Theocracy. Two Volumes. Hawthorne, California: The Christian Book Club of America, 1933.

Ward, J. S. M., Freemasonry and the Ancient Gods. London, England: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. Ltd., 1921.

Webster, Nesta H. Secret Societies and Subversive Movements. Palmdale, California: Omni Publication, 1924.

Copyright © 2009 by Thomas Coley Allen.

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Freemasonry the Early Years

Freemasonry the Early Years
Thomas Allen

[Editor's note: Footnotes in the original are omitted.]

Interest by non-masons in Freemasonry began to grow in the seventeenth century. Freemasonry began to divide into two kinds: operative and speculative. Scottish Masonic lodges began to allow honorary members, who were not stonemasons. These Scottish Masons brought about the restoration of the House of Stuart in 1660. The beginnings of modern Freemasonry started about 1619 when the London Masons’ Company organized a body called the "Acception." This organization was established for men who were not masons by trade; they were known as "gentleman masons" or "accepted masons."

Freemasonry became so popular and fashionable in Great Britain during the seventeenth century that the "accepted" Masons became the majority. Finally, those who were not operative masons, masons by trade, decided to abandon the operative masonic lodges and form their own gentlemen’s lodges. Thus, Freemasonry was born.

An important figure behind the creation of speculative Freemasonry was Francis Bacon, a Rosicrucian and possibly a son of Queen Elizabeth I.[1] He was highly involved in the tradition of the Knights Templars.[2] Furthermore, Bacon is one of Illuminism’s most important leaders. In his New Atlantis, Instauratio Magna, and some of his other works, he laid out the plan for the New World Order.

Modern-day secret societies and their concomitant conspiracies and occultism may be said to begin in the early eighteenth century with the establishment of modern-day Freemasonry. Modern-day Freemasonry began in 1717 with the union of four London lodges to form the United Grand Lodge of British Freemasons (the Grand Lodge of London).[3] The seven founders were James Anderson (a minister of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland and a libertine), Calvert, Theophile Desaguliers, Joseph Elliott, James King, Lumen-Madden, and George Payne.[4] All seven were Gnostics and Magi of the English Rose Croix. Anthony Sayer became the first Grand Master. In 1721, John, the Duke of Montagu, became the GrandMaster; since then, the Grand Master has always been a nobleman. Philip, Duke of Wharton, a prominent Whig politician became Grand Master in 1722. The first person of the royal family to be Grand Master was Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland, brother of George III, in 1782. Since 1782, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Cumberland, the Duke of York, or the Duke of Sussex has been grand master. Traditionally, a member of the royal family, or someone with close ties to Buckingham Palace, has been Grand Master of the English lodges.

By 1732, the Grand Lodge of London had become the center of English Freemasonry. By 1747, it dominated Freemasonry throughout the world.

The Freemasons modeled the structure of their organization after the craft guilds of the Middle Ages, primarily the French Compagnons and the Vehmgerichts, with degrees of membership. To this structure was added a speculative philosophy acquired from the Cabala. Among the other ancestors of Freemasonry are the ancient Mysteries of Egypt and Greece, Pharisaic Judaism, the Essences of Jerusalem, Hinduism, Gnosticism, the Roman Collegia of Artificers (Roman College of Builders), the Templars, the Steinmetzen of Westphalia, Rosicrucianism, and Theosophy. Of these, Jewish ones predominate and are, by far, the most important.

Fahey describes the relationship between Jews and Freemasonry as follows:

What we see, then, in the years following 1717 is rather the emergence into fuller light of a secret organised Force aiming at enrolling and forming groups of adepts to work for Naturalism, that is, for the denial of the Supernatural Life and the elimination of membership of Christ from society. The Jewish nation is a non-secret organised naturalistic Force, that is to say its naturalistic opposition to the Mystical Body of Christ is openly proclaimed. Freemasonry, the organised naturalistic Force action in subordination to and in conjunction with the Jewish nation is a secret society or group of societies, for its naturalism or anti-supernaturalism is secret or camouflaged.[5]

Of the relationship between modern Judaism and Freemasonry, Cahill observed,

(1) That much of the external trappings of Freemasonry, such as its ritual, its terminology, its legends, etc. are of Jewish origin;

(2) that the philosophy or religion of esoteric Freemasonry (that is of the inner circles and controlling power) is practically identical with the doctrines of the Jewish Cabala, which is the religion or philosophy of a certain section of the Jews;

(3) that a certain group of Jews, probably very few in number, but of immense influence and power, are leading Freemasons; and

(4) that a somewhat larger group of very influential Jews pursue the same ends as Freemasons, and use similar means, and are at least in close alliance with them.[6]

According to James Anderson, the real aim of Freemasonry was to carry "pure Gnosticism and liberal rationalism throughout the entire world"[7] and that "the secret teachings of the supreme leaders of Freemasonry may be summed up in these words: to establish all the rights of Man."[8] (Masonic Gnosticism goes back at least 200 years before the union of the London lodges.)

Freemasonry soon spread across Europe. In 1721, speculative English Freemasonry first appeared on the Continent in France. In 1725, English nobles and gentry who were supporters of James II, the Jacobites, founded the Grand Lodge of Paris. Charles Radcliffe, Earl of Derwentwater was its first Grand Master. (Thus, while Illuminists through Freemasonry in England supported the house of Hanover, Illuminists through Freemasonry in France and Scotland supported the house of Stuart.)

After arriving in France, Freemasonry spread rapidly across the continent. It appeared in Spain in 1728, Holland in 1730, Germany in 1730, Russia in 1731, Italy in 1733, Poland in 1735, Portugal in 1735, Sweden in 1735, Switzerland in 1736, Austria in 1742, Hungary in 1742, Denmark in 1743, and Finland in 1756. Monarchs in Spain, Portugal, and Naples opposed Freemasonry. However, in Germany and Austria, the monarchs viewed it favorably.

Freemasonry soon received the opposition of King Louis XV, who forbad his subjects to become Freemasons. Opposition to Freemasonry in France seemed to have been directed against selected individuals rather than Freemasonry per se. Two anti-masonry movements occurred in France: one in 1737 and the other in 1744 and 1745. However, persecution was sporadic and ineffective. Cardinal Andre de Fleury, who lead the first anti-Masonry movement, did not submit the Papal Bull issued in 1738 condemning Freemasonry to the French Parliament. Opposition to Freemasonry was mostly from the Catholic Church; the government showed little concern. Much of it may have been Cardinal Fleury’s attempt to protect himself from a high-ranking aristocrat using Freemasonry against him.

Frederick the Great aided the introduction of Freemasonry into Germany. In 1738, he was initiated into Freemasonry. He became Grand Master, and in 1761, he headed the Scottish Rite. Other rulers of German states followed his lead, as did Francis I of Austria. Frederick used Freemasonry as a cover for his intrigues.

Schisms soon developed within Freemasonry. In Great Britain, Freemasonry divided between the United Grand Lodge of England, which followed the new rules and ceremonies of The Constitutions of the Freemasons that Dr. James Anderson had written, and the Grand Lodges of Scotland and of Ireland, which preferred the old constitutions. Adherents of the new rules and ceremonies were known as the Modernists, and the adherents of the old, as the Antients or Ancient Masons. The Antients supported four Masonic degrees while the Moderns supported only three. Furthermore, while the Moderns had fully de-Christianized Freemasonry, the Antients had not. (Freemasonry did not seek to destroy the established religion so much as to replace it with the religion of Freemasonry.) Furthermore, the new constitutions replaced loyalty to country and patriotism with loyalty to the brotherhood of Freemasons, cosmopolitanism, internationalism, and nebulous mankind. (Freemasonry placed itself above state and country; for practical reasons, it avoided open conflict with the state.) This division remained until 1813 when the rival Grand Masters, George IV’s brothers, Edward Augusta, Duke of Kent and Grand Master of the Antients, and Augusta Frederick, Duke of Sussex and Grand Master of the Moderns, reunited the two factions. The union resulted in the United Grand Lodge of England with the Duke of Sussex as the Grand Master. The Moderns won in de-Christianizing Freemasonry, and the Antients won in having higher degrees and the invocation of the supposedly rediscovered long-lost name of God associated with the higher degrees.

In France a split occurred between followers of the Jacobites, who favored higher degrees (the Scottish Rite), and followers of the Grand Lodge of France (the English Grand Lodge of France), who opposed higher degrees. Masonic lodges that followed the Scottish Rites were known as red masonic lodges. Lodges following the English were known as blue masonic lodges. In 1754, Louis, Prince of Bourbon, Count of Clermont, and Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of France, began adding higher degrees. (Louis was Grand Master from 1743 until 1771.) In 1756, the Grand Lodge of France declared itself independent of the Grand Lodge of England.

At the urging of Mirabeau, Philippe Egalite, Duke of Chartres, later Duke of Orleans, united the various factions of French Freemasonry in 1773 with himself as Grand Master. Thus, to bring greater coordination and discipline among the red lodges, the Grand Orient of France was founded. Essentially, the union resulted in the Grand Lodge being submerged into the Grand Orient with the masters of the Grand Orient being masters of the new organization. The union was one of force as mush as of mutual agreement. (Even after this union, schisms continued until 1799.)

The Duke of Orleans led the faction that sought to overthrow Louis XVI, his brother-in-law, and put himself on the throne. He used the Grand Orient, which was no social club, to fulfill his ambition. It was in the forefront of revolutionary incitement. As early as 1776, it leadership was instructing the membership in preparation for insurrection.

In Germany a power struggle occurred between the Rosicrucian element and the French element. (French prisoners of war introduced the French element in 1756 and 1757.) Disagreement involved craft practices. The Rosicrucians had adopted the Scottish Rites, which had degrees above the first three. An appeal was made to the Grand Lodge of London, which claimed that to guarantee the purity of Freemasonry, it must instruct and rule on all matters of Freemasonry. It ruled that only three degrees were authentic. German Freemasonry divided into two factions: the Rosaic (Rosicrucian) lodges and lodges adhering to the Grand Lodge of London.

While these two factions squabbled, another Masonic faction rose to become much more important than these two. This was the Order of Strict Observance, which was founded in 1751. Karl Gotthold, Baron von Hund, organized this Order, which was based on the Scottish Rite and the Order of the Gold and Rosy Cross (a Rosicrucian society), and which was a Templar order.[9] Among the members of this Order were Prince Charles (Karl) of Hesse, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick (who became the head of the Order), von Bischoffswerder (the Prussian minister), Christian Bode (the Councillor of Legation in Saxe-Gotha and later a member of the Bavarian Illuminati.), Baron de Wachter, von Haugwitz (foreign minister of Frederick the Great), Baron Adolph von Knigge (Weishaupt’s assistant), Marquis de Chefdebien d’Armisson, and Count Leopold de Kollowrath-Krakowski.[10] Behind this Order were the Unknown Superiors, who remained in the background yet who had supreme control of the Order. Frederick the Great, Voltaire, and Hayyim Samuel Falk were probably among the Unknown Superiors.[11] The Order of Strict Observance eventually gained control of German Freemasonry. Then it was absorbed into the Order of the Illuminati as a result of the Congress of Wilhelmsbad in 1782. Officially, the Order of Strict Observance disappeared after the Congress of Wilhelmsbad. Nevertheless, it seems to have merely changed its name and became the Rectified Scottish Rite.

The Order of Strict Observance spread to France, Sweden, Hungary, Italy, and Russia. The Duke of Sudermania, who later became King Charles XIII of Sweden, presided over the Order in Sweden. In France, Jean-Baptiste Willermoz set up the first lodge in 1774 in Lyon, the year that he joined the Order. However, in 1778, Willermoz made French members of the Strict Observance independent of the Germans.

Besides Freemasonry, other secret societies also played an important role in the development of Illuminism during the eighteenth century. One such society was the Martinists or French Illuminati.

In 1754, Martines de Pasqually (Martinez Paschalis or Pasqualis), a Jew of Portugese origin, who was supposedly a Catholic by faith, founded the Order of the Elected Priest, whose members became known as Martinists and as French Illumines. Pasqually was a Rose Croix Freemason and a Rosicrucian. His Order was centered in Lyon, but it spread as far as Russia. This Order was an important instrument in spreading occultism across France. It emphasized theurgy, the Cabala, magic, divination, alchemy, Gnosticism, and Theosophy. Its goal was to use hedonism, secrecy, terror, and revolution to destroy Christianity and the existing order. From this anarchy would arise a New World Order without God where the Illuminists would hold the sexes and goods in common and mankind would be reduced to a herd of animals. Like all Illuminists, the Martinists had an intense hatred of the God of the Christians—thus, their rampant immorality, which is merely open rebellion against Him. It eventually became the third great Masonic power in France. Its philosophy became the predominant philosophy of Freemasonry.

In 1771, the Martinists and several other rival Masonic orders united and formed the new lodge of the United Friends. Savalette de Lange, a high initiate in Freemasonry and "the man of all conspiracies,"[12] founded this lodge. When he founded it, he was the Royal Treasurer, Grand Officer of the Grand Orient. To unite the other lodges into his, he blended sophistic, Martinist, and Masonic systems. Among the members of the United Friends were Jacques Pierre Brissot de Warville, Marquis de Chefdebien d’Armisson (he was also a member of the Grand Orient and the Strict Observance), Condorcet (Freemason), Danton, Frederic-Louis de Hesse-Darmstadt Count de Gebelin, Baron de Gleichen (Freemason), William Law (English clergyman), Mirabeau, Louis Claude Saint-Martin, Emmanuel J. Sieyes (Freemason), Viscount of Tavannes, Willermoz, and William IX of Hesse.[13] The United Friends "prosecuted the dark and dangerous work of preparing that reformation of society which in practice became [the French] Revolution."[14]

At the time of the union, Willermoz, who had joined the Martinists in 1767, controlled the Martinist lodges. He remained at Lodge Theodore in Munich until 1784, two years after Weishaupt’s Illuminati formerly united with Freemasonry. Lodge Theodore was the center of the Illuminati.

Endnotes
1. William T. Still, New World Order: The Ancient Plan of Secret Societies (Lafayette, Louisiana: Huntington House Publishers, 1990), p. 47.

2. Jim Marrs, Rule by Secrecy: The Hidden History That Connects the Trilateral Commission, the Freemasons, and the Great Pyramids (New York, New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2000), p. 228.
3. Norman MacKenzie, ed., Secret Societies (New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. 163. K.R, McKilliam, Conspiracy to Destroy the Christian West (London, England: The Board of Anglo-Saxon Celtic Deputies). p. 5.
4. Queenborough, Lady (Edith Starr Miller), Occult Theocracy (Two Volumes. Hawthorne, California: The Christian Book Club of America, 1933), pp. 34, 175. J. S. M. Ward, Freemasonry and the Ancient Gods (London, England: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. Ltd., 1921), p. 68.
5. Denis Fahey, Grand Orient: Freemasonry Unmasked as the Secret Power behind Communism through Discovery of Lost Lectures Delivered by Monsignor George F. Dillon, D.D. at Edinburgh, in October 1884 (New and Revised Edition. Metairie, Louisiana: Sons of Liberty, 1950), p. xiii.
6. E. Cahill, Freemasonry and the Anti-Christian Movement (Second edition. Dublin, Ireland: M.H. Gill and Son, Ltd., 1930. Reprinted 1952), p. 77.
7. James W. Wardner, Unholy Alliances: The Secret Plan and the Secret People Who Are Working to Destroy America (James W. Wardner, 1996), p. 81.
8. Ibid., p. 82.
9. Marrs pp. 240, 246-247. Queenborough, p. 350. J.M. Roberts, The Mythology of the Secret Society (New York, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1971), pp. 106-107. Nesta H. Webster, Secret Societies and Subversive Movements (Palmdale, California: Omni Publication, 1924), p. 154.
10. Clarence Kelly, Conspiracy Against God and Man: A Study of the Beginnings and Early History of the Great Conspiracy (Belmont, Massachusetts: Western Islands, 1974), p. 72. Webster, pp. 154, 210, 236.
11. Kelly, p. 72. Webster, pp. 157,190.
12. Una Birch, Secret Societies and the French Revolution Together with Some Kindred Studies (New York, New York.: John Lane Co., 1911), p. 31.
13. The Cause of World Unrest (New York, New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1920), p. 23. Queenborough, pp. 183, 369. Webster, p. 171.
14. Birch, p. 31.
[Editor's note: The original contains a list of references, which has been omitted.]
Copyright © by Thomas Coley Allen.

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French Revolution Part II

The French Revolution
Part II: The Revolution

Thomas Allen

[Editor's note: The footnotes in the original are omitted.]
At their international Congress of Wilhelmsbad in 1782, Freemasons made plans for the French Revolution. Three years later another congress met. This time it met in Paris. Like the previous congress, the Paris Congress of 1785 made plans for the French Revolution. Illuminists attending the Paris Congress included Bode, Baron de Busche, Cambaceres, Marquis de Chefdebien, Danton (Freemason), Duchanteau (Cabalistic Jew), Fouche, Lafayette (Freemason), Marat (a Freemason), Mirabeau (Freemason), Robespierre (Freemason), and Talleyrand (Freemason).[1] Savalette de Langes was elected president.

The Frankfurt Congress of 1786 followed it. This Congress was more secretive and decreed the death of Louis XVI of France and Gustavus III of Sweden.[2]

Following these congresses, the Rite of Perfection, which had been founded in 1754, was reorganized in 1786 and became the Order of the Ancient and Accepted Rite. Frederick the Great wrote the new constitution of this Order. He rearranged the degrees to bring the number up to 33. Frederick became Sovereign Grand Commander. Philippe, Duke of Orleans and Frederick’s lieutenant, became Grand Master of the Grand Orient. Thus, Frederick gained control of Freemasonry in France and carried on the work of Weishaupt and the Illuminati.

After the fall of the Bavarian Illuminati, some Illuminati fled to France and joined the lodge of the United Friends. Two Illuminati, Bode and Busche, meet with Mirabeau, who was also an Illuminate, and Talleyrand in 1787 in Paris. Also attending this meeting were two members of the Strict Observance, Marquis de Chefdebien d’Armisson and Count Leopold de Kollowrath-Krakowski, who was also an Illuminate. With the United Friends lodges, they brought together the revolutionists and subversives in the other lodges and the Grand Orient into one group. These Illuminists were so successful in gaining control of Freemasonry and allied systems in France that even the philosophical political program of the Illuminati replaced Cabalistic magic of the most mystical lodge.[3]

Working in and through Freemasonry, Illuminists organized and orchestrated the French Revolution. The French Revolution was one of the great orgies of blood sacrifices to Lucifer in modern times. The purpose of the French Revolution was to satisfy Lucifer’s lust for blood and to transfer the property of the Church, nobility, and middle class to the bankers and their allied Illuminists. It also sought to destroy the political, economic, and social structure of France. In achieving these goals, the French Revolution was largely successful. By the end of the Reign of Terror, the Illuminists had achieved many of their destructive goals in France as the monarchy, the aristocracy, and Church had all been overthrown.

In England, Prime Minister William Pitt fell under the control of William Petty, Earl of Shelburne. Pitt became heavily indebted. Lord Shelburne and his closest associates paid Pitt’s debt. In turn they gained control of Pitt’s policy decisions. As the chief of the British intelligence, Lord Shelburne intrigued much of the excess of the French Revolution. His agents promoted some of the most atrocious acts of the Reign of Terror.[4]

English money help finance the Revolution. However, the money seemed to have come from sources independent of Pitt and King George III.[5]

The international bankers, led by the Swiss bankers, refused loans to the French government unless Louis XVI appointed Jacques Necker, a German banker, Minister of Finance. Preaching austerity, Necker destroyed the French currency through inflation. The inflation caused even greater unrest. Many suspect that he inflated the currency at the direction of certain Swiss bankers who sought to profit greatly from the demise of France.[6]

Secular humanism, a modernization of the Cabala, also inspired the French Revolution. The Academia of the de Medicis had advanced secular humanism in Florence. From secular humanism came the denial of God. Once God was denied, regicide and mass executions were easy.

Freemasonry had degraded Christianity by placing it on the same level as Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and all the other false religions. (Perhaps more correctly, all religions were inferior to Freemasonry.) Freemasonry taught that no religion was any better than any other religion. (Thus, it negated all religions.) Religious dogmas were merely personal opinions. The Church should be reduced to executing the will of Freemasonry, which would be "the clearinghouse for ideas and beliefs and the guiding spirit of humanity."[7] Freemasonry had become the new religion.

Furthermore, the nobility also lusted after the property of the Catholic Church. They knew that they could not have it without a civil war. Moreover, the Illuminists wanted to place the Church and its clergy under the control of the government, which they controlled. A new church and religion would be established to enlighten the people with Illuminism.

Also, responsible for the excesses of the French Revolution was the Enlightenment of Descartes. Another culprit was the Positivism of Comte: "God is only an abstraction—he does not exist; only humanity is real."

Once discontent had been fomented and an intense propaganda war waged against Church and state, all that was needed was a fuse to set off the volatile mixture. Philippe, Duke of Orleans, was the fuse. To create a crisis and popular unrest, the Duke of Orleans engineered a food shortage. Illuminists used the resulting famine of 1789 to lead the people into revolt.

From the beginning until the execution of Robespierre, the Jacobins controlled the Revolution. The Jacobins wanted to destroy the monarchy and other existing institutions as a preclude to usher in their New World Order. To achieve their goal, they used a Hegelian formula that has since become a common revolutionary tactic. They hired thugs and encouraged radicals to riot and act lawlessly (thesis). Then influential Jacobins came forth and promised "law and order" (antitheses). Next came oppression and the police state that the Jacobins used to get rid of their enemies and rivals (synthesis).

During the French Revolution, Illuminists used Masonic lodges to carry out the extremes of the Revolution. Illuminists brought about the Reign of Terror during which King Louis XVI and many priests and aristocrats were murdered. Many middle class Freemasons who knew too much were also murdered.

In 1789, France had more than 2000 Masonic lodges with more than 100,000 adepts.[8] The presence of so many lodges in France facilitated the work of British intelligence in exasperating the Revolution.

During the Revolution, the National Assembly had 605 members. Of these, 477 were Freemasons.[9] More than 300 members of the Constituent Assembly were Freemasons.[10]

Freemasons (primarily Lafayette) wrote and approved in 1789 the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens. This Declaration of Rights became the first chapter of the constitution adopted in 1791. It essentially renounced allegiance to Christ and declared that France no longer had any duty to God through Christ. Society was no longer to be organized under Christ the King. The Masonic controlled Constituent Assembly also emancipated the Jews.

Freemasons directed every aspect of the Revolution and profited greatly from it. Survival was difficult for those who were not Freemasons. Many of the most influential and powerful aristocratic families held high positions in Freemasonry in France. For the most part, they and their property survived the orgy of the French Revolution.

Mirabeau’s mentor was Moses Mendelssohn. Under the influence of Mendelssohn, Rothschild, and other conspirators, Mirabeau became an important leader of the French Revolution. He was a high-degree Illuminist. He became a champion of the people, whom he held in contempt and used for political advantage. Although he claimed to represent the people, he was really an agent of the Illuminists. One of his chief jobs was liaison among the Illuminati, German lodges, and the Grand Orient. As a member of the Estates General, his task, which he executed extremely well, was to prevent any reforms that would solve the problems of the nation and relieve discontent from taking place. (Most of the laws enacted during this time were designed to antagonize factory workers, tradesmen, and peasants.) He was also tasked with consolidating political power. (Within a month after convening, the Third Estate had converted itself into the National Assembly and had usurped the powers of the entire Estate General.) His downfall came when he conspired to save the life of King Louis. To silence him, the Illuminists had him poisoned.[11]

Mirabeau and his associates delivered the government of France to the Illuminati with a coup d’etat by the Third Estate when it usurped all the power of the Estate General and converted itself into the National Assembly. This action destroyed the constitution of France. The National Assembly then had a new constitution, the Constitution of 1791, drawn up and adopted. This Constitution consolidated legislative and executive power in the National Assembly. Now the Jacobins openly held power.

Mirabeau and Mendelssohn persuade the Duke of Orleans to make poor investments until he had lost his fortune and was deep in debt. To pay his debt, he forfeited his palace, the Palais Royal, to his lenders. His lenders placed de Laclos in charge of the palace.

De Laclos was a Grand Master of the Rosicrucian Knights of Malta. He turned the Palais Royal into a high class brothel and a headquarters for printing revolutionary pamphlets.

Although the Duke of Orleans was an Illuminist (after all, he was Grand Master of the Grand Orient), he was a not a high-degree Illuminist. To the high-degree Illuminists, he was merely a tool to be used to achieve their goals. He wanted to be king. Using this desire, the Illuminists manipulated him to do their bidding. He only knew part of their plan, the part that the illuminist Mirabeau told him. He did not know that higher Illuminists had no intentions of replacing one monarch with another. Obviously, he had no idea of the extent that the Illuminists were using him. The Illuminists freely used his wealth and influence. He gave the cause all that he had. When the Illuminists no longer had any use for him, he was guillotined.

Two other leaders of the Revolution, Marat and Robespierre, conceived a plan to depopulate France. The plan called for killing as many Frenchmen as possible—at least half the population. Who died did not matter as long as vast numbers died. (Lucifer was thirsty for blood.) Victims were taken randomly; the more innocent, the better. They were all counterrevolutionists, and all counterrevolutionists must be executed. Thus, began the Reign of Terror. (The Illuminists also saw mass execution as a solution to the mass unemployment that their revolution had caused.)

With the Reign of Terror, occultism captured the French Revolution. The Revolution moved into a phase of murder and destruction just for the sake of murder and destruction. It was an "orgy of hatred, lust, and cruelty directed not only against the rich but still more against the poor and defenseless, the destruction of science, art, and beauty, the destruction of the churches, the organized campaign against all that was noble, all that was sacred, all that humanity holds dear."[12] It was a rebirth of Satanism of the fourteenth century. The Cabalists, Gnostics, and other cults had finally succeeded in bringing down Christianity.

The Reign of Terror gave the politically powerful Insiders the opportunity to eliminate their weaker rivals. It also gave the weaker rivals an opportunity to usurp and overthrow their superiors. Not only did many poor, obscure people die during the Reign of Terror, so did many dupes, collaborators, sympathizers, and opportunists. Even some high-degree Illuminists were executed.

The Reign of Terror ended with the deaths of Marat, Robespierre, and Danton. These three had orchestrated the Reign of Terror. Robespierre was convicted of conspiracy and executed from fear that he would reveal the involvement of the Illuminists in the Revolution. Furthermore, he had also ordered the execution of Jean Baptiste Clootz (Anacharsis). Although the Reign of Terror had fallen short of its goal of killing half the French population, it had claimed thousands of lives including some important Illuminists.

Weishaupt had outlined the course of the French Revolution, and it followed his plan with amazing accuracy. He had said that princes were to be used to advance Illuminism. The Illuminists certainly used the Duke of Orleans and his lust to be king. Weishaupt called for enlisting women. The French revolutionists certainly used women—not women of intelligence or energy, but women with "disordered imaginations and perverted passions."[13] His plan called for the destruction of the monarchy, which the French Revolution achieved. It called for the destruction of the Christian religion. Although the Revolution did not fully accomplish this goal, it did inflict great damage with the slaughter of priests and degradation of the churches with the blasphemous and immoral ceremonies performed in them. Weishaupt’s plan called for the destruction of industry and science, and manufacturing towns were ravaged, libraries burned, and scientists executed. When the Reign of Terror ended, France laid demoralized and in ruins, filled with hatred. It was bankrupt—morally, spiritually, physically, and fiscally; Lucifer and his Illuminists had won a great victory. The only real failure in Weishaupt’s plan was inciting a proletariat uprising across Europe. When the proletariat failed to revolt, the Illuminists forced the Jacobins to adopt a nationalistic attitude and launch a program of imperialistic conquest—the Napoleonic Wars.

The French Revolution ended, or more correctly, entered a new phase, when Napoleon, who was a high-degree Illuminist, assumed power. When it ended more than a million Frenchmen had given their lives.[14] This loss was far short of the 12 to 15 million that the Illuminists had slated for death. Like all illuministic revolution, the French Revolution was not a revolution of liberation; it was a revolution of oppression. It never had popular support.


Endnotes

1. Denis Fahey, Grand Orient: Freemasonry Unmasked as the Secret Power behind Communism through Discovery of Lost Lectures Delivered by Monsignor George F. Dillon, D.D. at Edinburgh, in October 1884 (New and Revised Edition. Metairie, Louisiana: Sons of Liberty, 1950), p. 31. E. Cahill, Freemasonry and the Anti-Christian Movement, Second edition (Dublin, Ireland: M.H. Gill and Son, Ltd., 1930. Reprinted 1952), p. 14. Nesta H. Webster, Secret Societies and Subversive Movements (Palmdale, California: Omni Publication, 1924), p. 234.

2. Clarence Kelly, Conspiracy Against God and Man: A Study of the Beginnings and Early History of the Great Conspiracy (Belmont, Massachusetts: Western Islands, 1974), p. 151.

3. Webster, Secret Societies, pp. 236-237.

4. Eustace Mullins, The Curse of Canaan: A Demonology of History (Staunton, Virginia: Revelation Book, 1987), p. 112.

5. The Cause of World Unrest (New York, New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1920), p 9. Lady Queenborough (Edith Starr Miller), Occult Theocracy (Two Volumes. Hawthorne, California: The Christian Book Club of America, 1933), p. 380.

6. Anton Chaitkin, Treason in America From Aaron Burr to Averell Harriman (New York, New York: New Benjamin Franklin House, 1984), p. 20. Mullins, p. 113.

7. Bernard Fay, Revolution and Freemasonry 1680-1800 (Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, and Company, 1935), p. 297.

8. Mullins, p. 114. Queenborough, p. 337.

9. Queenborough, p.380.

10. Fahey, p. xiv.

11. Kelly, pp. 155-157, 168-169. Mullins, p. 112. Nesta H. Webster, World Revolution: The Plot Against Civilization (Editor Anthony Gittens. Seventh edition. Palmdale, California: Omni Publications, 1994), p. 45.

12. Webster, Secret Societies, p. 246.

13. Webster, World Revolution, p.46.

14. Kelly, p. 164.


[Editor's note: The list of references in the original is omitted.]

Copyright © 2009 by Thomas Coley Allen.

  More articles on history.

French Revolution Part I

The French Revolution
Part I: The Foundation

Thomas Allen

[Editor's Note: Footnotes, most of which contain additional information about the conspirators, in the original are omitted.]

In 1773, Mayer Amschel Rothschild invited twelve wealthy and influential Jews to meet with him in Frankfurt. His objective was to convince them to pool their resources so that they could use their combined resources to finance and control a world revolutionary movement. Through revolution, they would gain control of the world, including its resources and people. The twelve agreed to join with Rothschild in a conspiracy to control the world.[1]

Rothschild’s plan called for wrecking economies to create large-scale unemployment and bringing the masses to near starvation. With their propagandists, they would inflame hatred against the ruling class. They would advocate political freedom to convince the electorate to surrender their power and prerogatives to the plotters and their agents. They would promote moral corruption, drugs, and vice. The conspirators would foment and control wars so that both sides would accrue ever larger debts. They would buy political candidates and officeholders to do their bidding. Rothschild and his co-conspirators would bring down existing governments, with either internal or external foes, and replace them with people under their control.

To aid them in their conspiracy, they got Adam Weishaupt to organize the Order of the Illuminati. The Order of the Illuminati became a front for the Jewish Kahal, the Jewish International World Government. The goal of the Jewish Kahal was to attain political, economic, and moral world dominion[2]—the New World Order.

Adam Weishaupt (Spartacus), who was, according to Louis Blanc, "one of the most profoundest conspirators who have ever existed,"[3] founded the Order of the Illuminati on May 1, 1776 in Bavaria. Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, Grand Duke Ernest of Gotha, William IX of Hesse-Kassel, Mirabeau, and, probably, Friedrich Christopher Nicolai were also founders of this Order.[4] The Jesuits, Assassins, Roshaniya, ancient Mysteries, and Freemasonry were important contributors to the doctrines of the Illuminati.

Weishaupt based his original inner council on the pentagram, the symbol of Sirius, the Blazing Star. His inner council had five members: Weishaupt himself, Kolmer (who initiated Weishaupt into Illuminism), Francis Dashwood, Alphonse Donation de Sade (from whom comes the word "sadism"), and Meyer Amschel Rothschild.[5]

Weishaupt’s primary proposes for establishing the Order of the Illuminati was to promote secretly his egalitarian goals. The goal of his Illuminati was to abolish (1) all established governments, especially monarchies, (2) all private property and inheritance, (3) nationalism and patriotism, which would be replaced with internationalism and universal brotherhood, (4) marriage and family life, (5) all religions, especially Christianity. Out of the resulting chaos and anarchy would arise a New World Order with its one-world totalitarian government controlled by the Illuminists. His philosophy was based on the philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau (private property is the cause of all man’s problems) and the anti-Christian doctrines of the Manichaeans.

To conceal the anti-Christian goal of his Order of the Illuminati, Weishaupt directed that initiates be told that the Order sought to perfect Christianity and that Jesus was the originator of Illuminism. Members were guided from Christianity to Deism, then to atheism, and finally to Satanism. Weishaupt dressed his secret tenets in Christian terminology. Only high degree members knew the true goals of the Order.

He soon used the Illuminati to infiltrate and gain control of Freemasonry. Then the Illuminati used Freemasonry to bring about his goal of infiltrating and then destroying all governments and religions and setting up a New World Order ruled by the Illuminati.

Weishaupt, who was a Jew who converted to Catholicism,[6] may have been a Jesuit priest.[7] At least Jesuits had previously held the position of professor of canon law at Ingolstadt University to which he was appointed in 1773. Regardless of his background, the maliciously anti-clerical Weishaupt was placed in charge of instructing students in the canons of the Church. Two years later he became dean of the Faulty of Law.

As a professor, Weishaupt advocated freedom from religious restraint and from legitimate civil authority. His teachings met strong opposition from the Jesuits. By accusing the Jesuits of being "the secret force behind the subversive secret societies," the Illuminists were able to get them expelled or suppressed in several countries. Finally in 1773, the pope dissolved the society. (However, Frederick the Great of Prussia not only did not abolish the Jesuits in Prussia; he protected and encouraged them.)

Weishaupt, who became a Freemason in 1777, was a member of the Masonic Lodge Theodore in Munich. Kolmer had initiated him into an ancient order and the Mysteries of the East in 1771. Weishaupt appears to have become a Satanist. Nevertheless, Weishaupt emphasized rationalism over mysticism and Theosophy.

Weishaupt did not originate the destructive doctrines that he advocated. He did not corrupt Freemasonry; it was corrupted before he came on the scene. He saw Freemasonry as an institution to be used to achieve his goals and proceeded to organize and control it toward that end. His goals were consistent with Freemasonry. Furthermore, the anti-Christian conspiracy was already in place waiting for him to organize, direct, and complete.

Backing Weishaupt, who was the supreme head of the Order of the Illuminati, were some of the leading Jewish bankers of Europe. His backers included Moses Mendelssohn, Daniel Itzig, Benjamin and Abraham Goldsmid, Moses Mocatta, Meyer Cerfbeer, and David Friedlander.[8] (Bernard Lazard, a Jewish writer, asserts that "there were Jews, Cabalistic Jews, around Weishaupt."[9])

Weishaupt welded together a highly efficient system. He combined "the disintegrating doctrines of the Gnostics and Manichaeans of the modern philosophers and Encyclopaedists, the methods of the Ismailis and the Assassins, the discipline of the Jesuits and Templars, the organization and secret of the Freemasons, the philosophy of Machiavelli, the mystery of the Rosicrucians."[10] He was a master at using people.

The goal of the Illuminati was (and is) to destroy utterly Western Christian society. It sought to destroy all political and religious authority. Private property was to be abolished. Nationalities were to be obliterated. Society was to be reorganized with the masses reduced to slaves ruled by the masters, the Illuminati, who would have absolute and unchecked power. Then universal equality would be achieved. Weishaupt’s goal was to destroy all existing governments and religions and to establish a New World Order. Being an extreme materialist, he had utter contempt for all religions; their only useful purpose was for him to use to deceive, manipulate, and control. This New World Order would have a totalitarian world government with a libertine Luciferian religion. Weishaupt and the Illuminati selected France as the country in which to begin the revolution.

Weishaupt demanded that members of the Illuminati dedicate themselves totally to the work of the Order. They had to place at its service all that they had—their honor, liberty, property, and life. They had to abandon all allegiances to country and Church. Furthermore, they bound themselves to secrecy and pledged unquestionable obedience to all commands of their unknown superiors.

Rich men were recruited for their money. Women were recruited because they were easy to lead (mislead) and because they could be used to influence prominent men. University professors and teachers were recruited because they could train and recruit young professionals. Religious leaders were recruited partly because Weishaupt enjoyed corrupting them and partly because of their influence. Judges, political leaders, and high-level bureaucrats were also recruited. Most members were to be kept ignorant of the true goals of the Order. They were to remain ignorant of higher ranks until they had been groomed enough to advance. Only adepts of the highest ranks knew the true goals of the Order.

Members were incited to spy on one another and on their friends, families, neighbors, and all whom they encountered. They were to discover weaknesses that the Illuminati could use to advance their cause. Members had to reveal compromising information, such as an unknown criminal act or sexual indiscretions that superiors could use as blackmail, or members would be required to commit a crime that superiors could use against them.

Among the members of the Illuminati were Prince August Karl von Hardenberg, Christian Bode (Freemason, privy councillor of the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt), Cagliostro (known as the "Prince of Mystery"), Prince Charles of Hesse, Jean Baptiste Clootz (Anacharsis), Count Ludwig Cobenzl, Marquis de Constanza (Diomedes, secretary of the Order) Friedlander (Jewish banker), Johann von Goethe, Johann von Herder, Hertel (Marius), Itzig (Jewish banker), Immanuel Kant (philosopher), Baron Adolph von Knigge (Philo), Count Leopold de Kollowrath-Krakowski, Baron Maendl (Freemason and Chamberlain of the Elector of Bavaria), Massenhausen (Ajax), Moses Mendelssohn (Jewish philosopher and silk merchant), Mirabeau (a leader of the French Revolution), Baron de Montgelas, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (composer, Freemason), Christopher Friedrich Nicolai (publisher of a literary review in Berlin, Freemason), Mayer Amschel Rothschild (Jewish banker, founder of the House of Rothschild), Count de Saint-Germain, Count Aurelio Saviola (keeper of the archives of the Order ), Frederick von Schiller (poet), Baron von Schroeckenstein (Mahomed), Baron Joseph von Sonnenfels, Voltaire (philosopher), Christoph Wieland, and Xavier von Zwack (Cato, Freemason, lawyer, Privy Councilor to Prince von Salon).[11]

In 1782, Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, acting as Supreme Grand Master, called the Congress of Wilhelmsbad. This meeting became known as "the Convent of Wilhelmsbad." Delegates came from every part of the British Empire, all the countries of Continental Europe, the colonial possessions of France, Holland, Portugal, and Spain, and the United States. At least three million members of secret societies from around the world were represented at the Congress of Wilhelmsbad. Among the attendees were Bode, William Dohm, Knigge, Gotthold Lessing, Mirabeau, Saint-Germain, Saint-Martin, Lord Shelburne (William Petty) of England, and Willermoz. Two of Weishaupt’s associates, Knigge and Dietrich von Dittfort control the convention. Willermoz presided over the convention.[12]

The Illuminati had infiltrated Freemasonry and eventually had gained control of it. At the Congress of Wilhelmsbad, Weishaupt with the aid of Knigge and Dittfort formally combined the Order of the Illuminati with the Freemasons. Other secret societies, such as the Martinists, Rosicrucians, Templars, Knights of Beneficence, and the Brothers of Amity, were also united with the Illuminati and Freemasonry at the Congress. The Congress of Wilhelmsbad also united Freemasonry and allied secret societies with the international financiers. The resulting organization contained some of the most powerful men in Europe.[13]

When the Congress of Wilhelmsbad adjourned, two important accomplishments had been achieved. One, the various secret societies of Europe had been consolidated into Freemasonry and had become universal. Frederick the Great became the Grand Master of universal Freemasonry. Two, the Illuminati had ascended into leadership.[14] Thus, Weishaupt and his associates and backers could now carry out what Kelly calls the "Great Conspiracy" and Webster calls the "World Revolution."

Through Knigge, Weishaupt got the Congress of Wilhelmsbad to approve his plan and goal of the Great Conspiracy. That plan included Pantheism and communism of women, goods, and general concerns. Execution of the plan called for the destruction of the Church and Christianity and the elimination of all existing civil governments. The resulting void would be filled by a utopian universal republic where absolute equality, social brotherhood, and licentiousness would prevail and all social, moral, and religious restraints would be abolished.

Weishaupt established higher degrees and initiated suitable Freemasons and his own people into these higher degrees. As a candidate rose to higher degrees, he learned more about the nature and true goals of the Order of the Illuminati and Freemasonry. If he were found suitable for further illumination, he would rise to the next degree. If he were found unreliable, his advancement ceased. By controlling the higher degrees, the Illuminati controlled the Masonic lodges and used them to destroy society.

As with other illuministic societies, the greatest virtue that an Illuminate could possess was blind and unquestionable obedience to unknown superiors. Without such obedience, an Illuminate could never rise. He had to subordinate all national, religious, and patriotic allegiances and sentiments to his unknown superiors.

Only select Freemasons from the highest degree were aware of Weishaupt’s plans. Only those Freemasons who had completely rejected the God of the Christians and His Son, Christ Jesus, were initiated into the highest degree and became privy to the purpose of the Illuminati. These adepts of the highest degree became, in effect, high priests of the Synagogue of Satan. Lucifer became the god whom they worshiped. (The worship of Lucifer does not require religious ceremonies and overt acts of worship as occur in most religions. The act of blasphemy or rejecting the God of the Christians, Christ, or the Church is an act of worshiping of Lucifer.)

To thwart rivals within Freemasonry, lodges could not send local money to affiliated superiors. The Illuminati had independent sources of money and did not need local money.

Through power, money, sex, and blackmail, the Illuminati brought influential people under its control. Young people from the well-bred families were selected for indoctrination at prestigious schools. Thus, the Order of the Illuminati became "the Master Conspiracy of the Great Conspiracy."[15]

Like today’s illuministic conspirators, the Illuminati advanced their ideology by promoting and supporting their members, agents, sympathizers, and fellow travelers in key positions in government, business, academia, and religion. By controlling these important and influential positions, they could promote and carry out their plans of world domination. From the beginning, they have promoted wars and revolutions on an ever increasing scale.

Accompanying the union of secret societies in Europe was a movement to emancipate the Jews. Jews began to be presented as innocent victims of cruel barbarous Christians. Backing this movement was Prussia. The Congress of Wilhelmsbad issued an edict that Masonic lodges were not to exclude Jews.

The Congress of Wilhelmsbad also decided to move the headquarters of illuminized Freemasonry to Frankfurt. Frankfurt was the center of Jewish financiers: Mayer Amschel Rothschild, Oppenheimer, Schuster, Speyer, D. Stern, and Wertheimer. The plans for the upcoming illuministic world revolution were formulated at the Frankfurt lodge.

In 1784, Elector Carl Theodore of Bavaria outlawed all secret societies, which included the Order of the Illuminati, not recognized by the state. The Illuminati responded by ignoring the edict. In spite of the counsel of his advisors, the Elector had issued the edict. His advisors, who were Illuminati, had greatly ridiculed and expressed considerable doubts about the existence of a conspiracy. Urging the Elector to ignore all evidence of a conspiracy were the conspirators themselves.

Following his edit, the Bavarian government began investigating the Order of the Illuminati. In 1785 the Elector suppressed by name the Order of the Illuminati, and the pope condemned the Order.

When in 1785 Weishaupt’s leadership of the Order of Illuminati became public, he fled Bavaria. He took refuge with the Ernest Louis, Duke of Saxe-Gotha. Here he continued to direct the Order.

The Illuminists turned the Bavarian disaster into a propaganda coup. They proclaimed that Illuminism was dead; the New World Order of the Illuminati was no more. Most people believed the lie. (Many still do.) With public anxiety allayed, the Illuminists became even more powerful.

Although the Order of the Illuminati was outlawed and suppressed in Bavaria and its leader exiled, the important leaders were not arrested or imprisoned. They continued to operate outside Bavaria. Though the Bavarian incident may have destroyed the Order of the Illuminati as a formal society, it did not, however, destroy the Illuminati or Illuminism. The Illuminati merely reorganized. Most likely, the German Union, which Knigge and Charles Frederic Bahardt (a Freemason) attempted to illuminize, was part of this reorganization.[16]

Ostensibly, the German Union was established to oppose those who wanted to suppress "Reason." The stated goal of the German Union was to promote naturalism, to destroy enslaving superstition, i.e., organized religion, and to enlighten mankind. It sought to restore man to his true state of liberty and equality. The German Union was not very successful, but its successor, the Tugendbund (Union of Virtue), which was organized primarily as a political league, was.

After the suppression of the Bavarian Illuminati, Mirabeau carried Illuminism to France where he initiated the Duke of Orleans and Talleyrand. Sieyes and Condorcet soon joined. Barnave, Brissot, Claude Fauchet (a Freemason), Lafayette, and Duke Francois de La Rochefoucauld also became Illuminati. By the time that the French Revolution began, the doctrines of Weishaupt had permeated every lodge of the Grand Orient of France. To Bode and Busch goes much of the credit of this indoctrination.

Although the Order of the Illuminati seems to have disappeared when the Elector of Bavaria outlawed it and Freemasonry in 1785, its philosophical being lived on in Freemasonry and other secret societies. The Order’s ideology and practices lived on (and, indeed, are alive and more vigorous than ever today). Its leaders moved on to organize new societies and to take control of other secret societies, especially Freemasonry with which it had merged at the Congress of Wilhelmsbad in 1782.

Endnotes
1. Eustace Mullins, Federal Reserve (1991), p. 54.

2. Lady Queenborough (Edith Starr Miller). Occult Theocracy (Two Volumes. Hawthorne, California: The Christian Book Club of America, 1933), p. 184, 371.

3. Nesta H. Webster. Secret Societies and Subversive Movements (Palmdale, California: Omni Publication, 1924), p. 207.

4. Clarence Kelly, Conspiracy Against God and Man: A Study of the Beginnings and Early History of the Great Conspiracy (Belmont, Massachusetts: Western Islands, 1974), p. 105. Eustace Mullins, The Curse of Canaan: A Demonology of History. (Staunton, Virginia: Revelation Book, 1987), p. 92. Queenborough, p. 184. Webster, p. 205.

5. Terry Melanson, "Illuminati Conspiracy, Order of the Illumined Wise Men," http://www. conspiracyarchives.com/NWO/Illuminati.htm, Dec. 12, 2002.

6. Salem Kirban, Satan’s Angels Exposed (Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania: Salem Kirban Inc., 1980), p. 147. Archibald E. Roberts, Emerging Struggle for States Sovereignty (Fort Collins, Colorado: Betsy Ross Press, 1979), p.153.

7. K.R. McKilliam, Conspiracy to Destroy the Christian West (London, England: The Board of Anglo-Saxon Celtic Deputies), p. 5.

8. Mullins, Curse of Cain, p. 92. Queenborough, p. 184

9. Webster, p. 228.

10. Ibid., p. 231.

11. Una Birch, Secret Societies and the French Revolution Together with Some Kindred Studies (New York, New York.: John Lane Co., 1911), pp. 50, 52. Jacob Katz, Jews and Freemasons in Europe 1723-1939. (Translator Leonard Oschry. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1970), p. 73. McKilliam p. 6. Queenborough, p. 371, 373-374. J.M. Roberts, The Mythology of the Secret Society (New York, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1971), p. 124. William T. Still, New World Order: The Ancient Plan of Secret Societies (Lafayette, Louisiana: Huntington House Publishers, 1990), p. 74. Webster, p. 236.

12. Denis Fahey, Grand Orient: Freemasonry Unmasked as the Secret Power behind Communism through Discovery of Lost Lectures Delivered by Monsignor George F. Dillon, D.D. at Edinburgh, in October 1884 (New and Revised Edition. Metairie, Louisiana: Sons of Liberty, 1950) p. 27. Jim Marrs, Rule by Secrecy: The Hidden History That Connects the Trilateral Commission, the Freemasons, and the Great Pyramids (New York, New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2000), p. 240-241, 253. Queenborough, p. 353. James W. Wardner, Unholy Alliances: The Secret Plan and the Secret People Who Are Working to Destroy America (James W. Wardner, 1996), p. 39.

13. Fahey, p. 46.Gary H. Kah, En Route to Global Occupation (Lafayette, Louisiana: Huntington House Publishers, 1992), p. 25, 108. Kelly, p. 90. Mullins, Curse of Canaan, p. 92.

14. The Cause of World Unrest (New York, New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1920), p. 11.

15. Kelly, p. 107.

16. Ibid, p. 133.

17. Queenborough, pp. 374-375.

18. Birch, p. 54.

[Editor's note: The list of references contained in the original is omitted.]

Copyright © 2009 by Thomas Coley Allen.

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